Peace Studies and Conflict Resolutions -Summary, FAQ & Exam Questions

Conflict is the struggle between opponent over values and claims to scarce status [coser 1956] violence can be small scale or large scale.

Conflict Analysis provide information on how the conflict is seen.

Conflict Analysis Methods

• Conflict Mapping   
•  ABC Triangle   
• Onion of Positions, Interest and Needs  
• Tree of Conflict     
• Pyramid of conflict      

Stages of Conflict

1. Pre conflict stage

2. Confrontation stage

3. Crisis stage

4. Post conflict stage

Conflict Resolution is the process by which communication is used to assemble parties to conflict with view to reducing differences and resolving conflicts.

The 2 methods of conflict resolution are:

• Regular dispute resolution (RDR)
• Alternate dispute resolution (ADR)

RDR includes regular system of administration,judicial or legislative decision. It is based on Win/loose.

ADR is otherwise known as amicable dispute resolution and is of win/win philosophy.

Types of Alternate dispute resolution

1. Mediation              2. Conciliation             3. Arbitration            4. Dialogue

Mediation is the use of third party for resolving dispute between parties.

Types of mediators

1. Social Network      2. Authorative            3. Independent mediator

Conciliation use to investigate the causes and circumstances of the disagreement.He need some powers from recognized authority

Arbitration-Govt lays down the rules on how conflict could be resolved among conflicting parties any decision reached by the arbiter is binding/non binding. The dicision is called Award

Dialiogue-Parties meet without third party and work to resolve their conflict. We have

i.Positional dialogue by bargaining 

ii. Collaborative dialogue by bargaining

THEORIES OF PEACE STUDIES AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

In Nigeria since the return of democracy in 1999 there are conflicts like ethno-religious conflict, famers patrolist, kidnapping, niger delta avengers and recently the Boko Haram in the north east.

Theory is the idea or belief about something arrived at through assumption and in some cases a set of facts

Peace abhors violence and war.

1. Social conflict theory

2. Structural conflict theory examines social problems like political and economic exclusion,injustice,poverty,disease,exploitation,inequality etc is of 2 type;

The radical and liberal structural conflict theory.

The radical is advocated by marxist school of thought with promoters like marx and engel,vladimir lenin,mao tse tung.

The liberal is advocated by Johan Galtung,Scarborough,Ross etc

The radical blame capitalism for beign an exploitative system.

3. Biological theories of conflict– the essential positions of the BTC is that man by nature has tendency to do evil and express unfavourable circumstances

4. Frustation Agression theory– Man naturally react to unpleasant situations. Phsychologically, conflict occurs due to relative deprivation and frustration-agression tendencies.

Frustration is the feeling we get when  we do not get what we want or something interferes with our gaining desired goal.

Aggression is caused by frustration the turn to anger and then aggression.

Relative deprevation is defined as the conscious feeling of negative discrepancy between legitimate expectations and present actualities.

5. Human needs theory-conflicts are caused by unfulfilled human needs.All individuals have needs that they strive to satisfy.

In conflict,people represent their interest but not needs

6. Economic theories of conflict resolution-Humans as rational beigns have the tendency to fight over things that are material.

Conflict enterpreneurs are those that benefit from chaos.

7. Psyco-cultural theory- emphasizes role of culturally induced conflicts.It shows how enemy images are created from deep-seated attitues about human action that learnt from early stages of growth.when ones identity is discriminated against or derived,it produces strong feelings of hatred and results to violent conflict eg Hutu & Tusti in Rwanda, the indigenes/settlers conflict in Plateau state of Nigeria.

8. Realist theory of conflict-is the natural expression of conflict by parties engaged in the pursuit of scarce and competetive interest (deutch 1973).

Realist Theorists include carr, Heartz, Morgenthau

9. Contentious tactics- According to Prutt & kim seeks to impose its prefered solution on others usually involves persuading or forcing other to yield. We have

i. Light tactics                          ii.Heavy tactics

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Generally, conflict exist when there is an interaction between two or more individuals,groups or organizations

Conflict transformation is a more systematic approach,one that makes use of our experience & wisdom.

Human relation school views conflict as natural & inevitable outcome in any human setting.

Interactionist school views conflict as a necessary phenomenom for effective performance,innovation and Growth

Conflict points two things

1.Fundamental disaagreement- it is said to be substantive

2.Interpersonal difficulties-its emotional

Not all conflict are bad, conflict can be

 i.competetive (dysfunctional)      ii.cooperative(functional).

Sources of conflict

• Political
• Cultural                        
• Religious                                               
• Economic priveleges       
• Natural resources

  Types of conflict

1-Itra-personal conflict

2-Inter-personal conflict

3-Intra-group conflict

4-Inter-group conflict

5-Inter-national/inter-state conflict

  Causes of conflict

1-Data/information conflict

2-Value conflict

3-Structural conflict

4-Interest conflict

Alternate Dispute Resolution Techniques

1-Good governance                                                6-Avoidance                        11-Adjudication

2-Effective communication                                    7-Accomodation

3-collaboration (most acceptable)                         8-Domination

4-Compromise                                                        9-Mediation

5-Confrontation/fighting                                        10-Arbitration

A crisis is an extreme situation which has reached a turning point where critical decisions has to be made.It must be prevented at right time in order to avoid tensions.

Conflict management approaches can either be direct or indirect

Scripts are behavoural routines that become part of the organization culture.

Myths are proclamations or beliefs about a situation that deny the necessity to make trade-offs in conflict resolution

Problem solving involves gathering & evaluating information in solving problems and decision making

Escalated crisis management

1-Escalation training                                       2-Cooling-off period

3-De-escalatory language                               4-Media management

5-Dealing with destructive                              6-Step by step de-escalation

7-Controlled confrontations                            8-Dealing with extrimists

9-Changing leaders                                         10.Ground rules

11-Managing strong emotions                        12-Peace keeping

13-Observers                                                   14-Future focus

15-Develop personal relationship

ROLE OF NGOs IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION

NGO-Non governmental organization,is an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continious basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office,making money or illegal activities.

NGO may be local,national or international and include service groups prominent ,foundations etc

The most common distinction ofn NGOs activities is between operational and campaigning(advocacy) NGO.

For campaining NGOs,fund rising is necessary but on a smaller scale while that of operational on also have mobilized resources inform of financial donations, a large scale.

NGOs engage in fund rising,mobilization of work by supporters,organizations,cultivating the media and administering a headquater.

NGOs are more acceptable in conflict situations than other government agencies thereby opening way for them in conflict resolution.

NGOs should preserve their own identities and neutrality and should appear to be impartial.

NGOs can invest resources for capacity building activities.

NGOs can act as mediator

NGOs played vital role in situations in Burundi,Nothern uganda,Southern sudan,Darfur,DRC and Rwanda.

A lasting solution to a conflict is one that attacks the evil at its root.

Limitation of international law is one of the challenges  of NGOs world wide.

ACCORD– African center for the constructive Resolution of Disputes

CCR- Center for conflict Resolution, its purpose is to prevent and resolve conflicts.

ICJ- International commission of Jurist.

THE GACACA MODEL

The GACACA is a typical traditional model of achieving peace and conflict resolution.

It is purely African model and operated in Rwanda.

 The four main philosophies of the Gacaca

1-confession                                              2-Plea bargaining

3-Healing of victims                                 4-Reintegration

The Gacaca courts are traditionally established.

More than 250,000 males and females were selected to serve under the Gacaca courts.

Susupects were categorized into three (3) main categories known as organic laws.

Category 1- Are the planners/organizers,officials and leaders who committe rape & sexual torture.

Category 2-Notorious murders who killed or intended to kill.

Category 3- Are the property offenders.

Lawyers are not allowed to participate in the court and they make use of classrooms as courts.

The conflict started as tribal conflict then metamorphoses into a full scale political conflict.

The conflict was characterized by serious maiming,destructions of properties and ethnic cleansing.

The Gacaca focused more on restorative justice.

Judges were selected on the basis of their commitment to justice, truth and spirit of sharing.

Must be 21 years and above.

THE ROLE OF WOMEN AND YOUTH IN PEACEBUILDING IN AFRICA

The most tragic feature in conflict  and violent situations is that women & girls suffer their impact disproportionately.

Sexual violence & exploitation affects them

Women,girls and childrem as well as youth are victims of other forms of violence known as domestic violence

Peacebuilding- Is an art of repairing relationships,institutions and social facilities & putting in place schemes that can help the disputing communities to be united once again.

Elements of peacebuilding

(i)Apology and forgiveness                                    (ii)Reconciliation

(iii)Reconstruction                                                   (iv)Rehabilitation

The three levels of decision making are: the top,middle & the grassroot level

Impact of conflict o youth and women

The impact of conflict on youth and women are  rape,murder and torture.

Millions displaced and thousands of children captured to serve in armies and militias.

Women of all ages are vulnerable of violence and violation of their human rights i.e murder,terrorism,torture,involuntary,disappearance,sexual slavery,rape,sexual abuse and force pregnancy especially as a result of policies of ethnic cleansing.

Role of women and youth in peacebuilding progress

Women are half of every community and the task of peace building are so great.

Women are central caretakers of families in many cultures.

Women have capacity for both violence and peace.

Women can also act in the mobilization of armed groups and individuals as mothers,wives,friends,sisters,mentors and guardian.

GOS-Government of Sudan

AMIS-African union mission in Sudan.

UNSC-United nations security council, established in 1325.

Women serve in phsychological counselling and have higher chance of beign accepted by local populace than their male counterpart.

UNSC Is a major instrument that recognizes and streghten the role of women in peacebuilding.

It was passed on 31st october 2000.

The involvement of women in peace & security decisions must be at least 35%.

Rehabilitating victims of war crimes such as rape can only be healed by fellow women looking after the abandon children and babes can only be done by them.

PEACEKEEPING

Peacekeeping is an intervention in an area of instability  in order to facilitate the restoration of the area to back peace and stability.

Peace keeping operations(PKO) Are usually employed as as strategies that aim to create conditions that favour lasting peace.

Conflict in West Africa have attracted various Peacekeeping operations in order to de-escalate, manage, make, build, restore or enforce peace.

PKOs control, contain, manage, or prevent conflicts between conflicting parties either in terms of armed conflicts or interstage disputes.

Peacekeeping is different from peacebuilding, peacemaking, peace de-escalates, peace management, peace restoration, peace enforcement and mediation.

All the above mention are under peace support operations (PSO).

It should be noted that the principle of consent is what distinguishes peace-keeping from peace enforcement.

PKOs began the UN missions in various countries in Africa beginning from 1960.

Majority of missions were run from 1989.

The earliest PKO was ONUC-UN  operation in congo from july 1960-june 1964.

UNAVEM-United nations Angola Verification Mission.

UNTAG- UN-Transition Assistance Group.

UNOSOM-UN- Operation in Somalia.

UNAMIR-United nations Assistance mission for Rwanda

UNOMOZ-UN Observer mission in Sierra Leon.

MRLM-Redemption of Liberation Muslims.

RPF-Rwanda Patriotic Front.

The first Liberian civil war was in september 1993-september 1997.

The operations in west Africa are: ECOMOG, SADC & IGAD.

ECOWAS-Economic community of west African states

ECOMOG Was formed by ECOWAS as part of the extended function of ECOWAS

MDA- Mutual Defence Assistance protocol.

NPFL- National Patriotic front of Liberia. Formed by Taylor.

Due to NPFL in Liberia,about  2.6 million (almost half of the country’s population) were displaced.

Monrovia is the capital of Liberia.

Conakry is the capital of Guinea.

 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA IN CONFLICT AND PEACEBUILDING

The word communication has its origin in the latin Communis which stands for common or to create commonnes with the people around you.

Communication- is the sending of a message from one person to another, in simplest terms, its one of the oldest characteristics of human life.

Communication among people got faster track than by with the availability of formal languages in form of symbols,gestures body expressions and words.

It took centuries for mankind to enter stage of writing its messages on stones,walls and sand.After development of writing,the next attempt was to find materials to write on.

Mass communicator-Is someone who uses technological tools to amplify a message to mass audience e.g blogger,news reporter,DJ,actors etc.

Mass messages are news,stories etc

Mass medium are the means of transfering messages eg internet,radio etc.

The major function of of mass media in society is commonly described as that of informing,educating,entertaining and mobilizing people.

One of the major purpose of communication is to mediate relationships by providing a means through which human and other interactions including disagreements are observed,reported,discussed,given attention,signified,symbolized and responded.

The mass media cannot be the sole causative agent to conflict.

Mass media is a double edge sword, Can be constructive or not.

When mass media reports event in a professional and standardized manner, its said to be constructive

Bad news makes news and that conflict is bad, therefore newsworthy.

The factors that cause conflict in Africa should be assesed as inherend courses of development.

In Nigeria Usman(2003) documents 34 major ethno-religious conflicts in different parts of Nigeria.icluding Mai-tatsine,uprising in kano state,maiduguri kaduna,several other crisis in Borno,Jos crisis and the recent Boko Haram in the north east.

Peace Studies and Conflict Resolutions Exam Questions

Credit: Ahmad Haruna

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